African Bush Elephant, Loxodonta africana

Google
 
Web nature-wildlife.com
Images of Elephants
New Images of Elephants


WHAT IT IS

ELEPHANT
Loxodonta africana
Family Elephantidae
Order Proboscidea SUBSPECIES
Savanna elephant, L. a. africana
Forest elephant, L. a. cyclotis

WHAT IT IS

The largest land animal, Africa's true King of Beasts. male wt 11,000 lb, up to 13,200 lb (5000-6000 kg), ht 9 ft 10 in to 11 ft (3-3.3 m); female wt 6600-7700 lb (3000-3500 kg), ht 8 ft 4 in (2.5 m). Head: trunk, a muscular extension of the upper lip containing the nostrils, tip equipped with 2 finger like projections for handling small objects. Huge ears, up to 6.5 x 5 ft (2 x 1.5 m). Teeth 6 sets of cheek teeth (2 upper and 2 lower) of increasing size that move into place as the animal outgrows/wears out previous set; upper incisors modified as continuously growing tusks averaging 134 lb (61 kg) apiece in males (maximum wt 287 lb (1130 kg), length 7.7 ft (2.5 m) and 42 lb (19 kg) in females at 60 years. Feet: 4 toes on front feet, 3 on rear feet. Skin naked except for scattered bristles and sensory hairs; color gray or brown. Genitals open downward through skin flap between rear legs; penis invisible except when extended; testes internal. Scent glands: temporal glands near eyes, 3 times bigger in male, 6.6 lb (3 kg). Teats 2 between forelegs.
FOREST ELEPHANTS
Dwarfs inhabiting Lowland Rain forest would be considered a different species if the two forms didn't interbreed at the forest edge. Only 7 ft 10 in to 9 ft 2 in (2.4 2.8 m) tall, wt 3960 to 7040 lb (1800-3200 kg), with straight, downward pointing, parallel tusks, more oval ears, front feet with 5 nails, rear feet with 4.

WHERE IT LIVES

Formerly everywhere south of the Sahara where water and trees occurred. Range and numbers declined this century first through uncontrolled ivory hunting, later accelerating with human population growth. Catastrophic decline began in 1970s and 1980s as soaring demand for ivory made poaching as profitable as drug dealing. Continental population estimated at 1.3 million elephants in 1981, mostly outside protected areas, fell to 750,000 by 1986. Losses up to 80% in most countries of eastern and central Africa convinced most conservationists that stopping ivory trade was the only way to stop carnage. Proposal opposed by the few states (in southern Africa) where elephants and other wildlife have been effectively protected. Their elephants must be culled to keep populations within ranges' carrying capacity, and sales of ivory and other elephant products help pay parks' operating costs. Thanks to aroused worldwide concern over elephants' plight, most major importing countries (Japan, India, Hong Kong, Singapore, United States) joined a moratorium on ivory trade, followed by dramatic drop in price of raw ivory in 1990 and a corresponding drop in poaching in East Africa. If trend and moratorium continue, elephants can make a comeback in protected areas or at least hold their own.

GOOD PLACES TO SEE IT

Amboseli NP, Masai Mara GR, Kenya; Tarangire and Ruaha NP (dry season), Tanzania; Kafue NP, Zambia; Mana Pools and Hwange NP, Zimbabwe; Chobe NP, Moremi GR, Botswana; Kruger NP, South Africa; Etosha NP, Namibia.

ECOLOGY


Arguably the world's most versatile herbivore. Equipped with its unique nasal appendage an all in one grasping, smelling, drinking, squirting, broadcasting tool a big elephant feeds from ground up to 20 feet higher than a giraffe can reach. The trunk can coil around and pull up grass, pick up peas, and tear off tree limbs. Tusks are also tools for prying bark loose, digging pits and even caves in mineral earth to increase salt intake. Rasp like teeth grind up the toughest grasses, reeds, bark, and branches. Some bulls specialize in pushing over big trees.
Elephant dung consists largely of fiber that passes undigested through its comparatively small system. To compensate, adults consume and quickly process vast amounts: c. 330 lb/day (150 kg/day). Grass and herbs are mainstays in rainy season when elephants wander widely over the savanna; foliage and other browse are important in dry season when they feed more in forests, near water. Elephant trails that once crisscrossed the continent were the roadways used by human travelers. Many of today's highways are simply widened and paved trails engineered by elephants.
Second only to man in environmental impact, the elephant's good works have lately been overshadowed by devastation resulting when shrinking range and persecution force a population to concentrate. Tree destruction, normal and even beneficial when spread over a wide area, transforms and degrades habitats for many species besides the elephant itself when continuous in a limited area.

ACTIVITY


Day and Night active. Feeds 16 and sleeps 4 to 5 hrs/24 Dr day, usually standing, sometimes lying on one side; drinks and bathes daily but can abstain several days while ranging up to 50 mi (80 km) from water source. Bulls drink up to 60 gal (227 liters) a day, 26 gal (98 liters) at a time. Bathing elephants roll and wallow in the shallows, often submerge completely in deep water. At small water holes, the trunk is used to shower, then dust or mud coat the body. After, they rub against trees, rocks, etc. Flapping ears on still, hot days helps cool blood flowing through network of veins on back surface.

SOCIAL/MATING SYSTEM


A matriarchal clan society, the basic units consisting of a mother with her dependent offspring and grown daughters with their offspring. Males live separately, alone or in bachelor herds. Being nonterritorial, mating success depends on size and weapons. Growth continues into old age; seniors are therefore the biggest tuskers and do most of the breeding.
COW HERDS
Typically number 9 to 11 elephants. Larger herds tend to split in two but continue occupying the same home range and associating at least half the time. These "bond groups," averaging 28 related elephants in 2 to 3 family units, usually stay under a mile apart, staying in touch through rumbling calls too low for people to hear. Different bond groups may share a home range; they may all belong to the same clan. Depending on primary plant productivity and resource distribution, home ranges can be as small as 5.4 mi square (14 km square) in a groundwater forest (e.g., Manyara NP, Tanzania) to over 1350 mi square (3500 km square) in arid savanna.
A herd's welfare depends on the matriarch's leadership, as demonstrated by the fact that cow elephants like women but very few other animals live long after ceasing reproduction (at c. 45 yrs). The matriarch sets the herd's direction and pace and the rest of the herd follows, spreading out and feeding when she feeds, leaving off and closing up when she walks on. Even while browsing, herd members seldom stray further than 50 yds from a neighbor. Disturbances cause the herd to cluster around the matriarch (the biggest cow), with calves in the middle. Whether they flee or charge is up to her. Should something happen to her like getting shot the rest mill in blind panic. Rather than abandon her, they usually stay and get shot, too a boon for poachers that also makes the standard management practice of shooting whole herds an efficient if sickening way of culling a surplus. The most touching proof of the cooperative nature of elephant society is attempts to raise and support a fallen group member, one on each side.
Under normal circumstances, a matriarch that becomes too sick or old (at 50 60 yrs) to continue leading is replaced by the next~oldest cow; the feeble one either leaves the herd or is abandoned.
Persecuted elephants aggregate in herds numbering up to 200 animals including many young elephants. Animals from the same clan may often be involved, reunited in adversity and their common need for leadership. Aggregations of up to 1000 elephants used to form during rainy seasons and were often migratory. The presence of big bulls among the assembled cow herds indicated that mating activity was intensified in these assemblages.
BULL ELEPHANTS
Males leave cow herds at 12 years or later, depending on the onset of adolescent behavior and intolerance thereof by cows with young calves. Once on their own, bulls alternately wander solo and associate with other bulls, typically in herds of 2 to 14, occasionally over 35 and up to 144 bulls. Sub adults tend to associate and interact in peer groups, but bachelor herds usually include various ages. Bulls wander further than cows but during periods of sexual inactivity most stay in small "retirement areas," often with 1 or more regular companions. Very old bulls, ponderous hulks with the biggest tusks, are the most sedentary. They end their days in swamps where they can still consume quantities of herbage as their last set of molars wears out.

HOW IT MOVES


Just one basic gait an ambling walk; elephants cannot run or jump like other animals. Normal walking rate 3.7 to 5 mph (6 8 kph), increased to 6 to 8 mph (9.7 13 kph) by taking longer, quicker strides. Charging or fleeing elephants hit 25 mph (40 kph) much faster than people can run. Elephants climb up and (sometimes slide) down precipitous slopes, sit on their haunches before lying down or getting up, can "sit up" like begging dogs, and stand semierect to reach food or mount a female. Tusk less elephants practically stand on their heads to eat mineral earth.

REPRODUCTION


Not strictly seasonal, but most matings and births during rains. First conception at 10 to 11 years; gestation 22 months; interval between calves 4 to 9 years; twins extremely rare. Under crowded conditions or during droughts, elephants lower reproductive rate. Bulls of 25 and older begin competing reproductively, but normally bigger bulls over 35 monopolize matings. But onset of musth, a state of heightened aggressive and sexual activity, changes the odds. Musth bulls continually search for mating opportunities, are deferred to by other bulls, and preferred by cows in heat.

MATING BEHAVIOR


Copulation complicated (as in spotted hyena) by unusual arrangement of genitalia. Preparatory to mounting, bull lays his trunk along cow's neck and head, rests his tusks or chin on her rump, and levers himself onto his bent hind legs, meanwhile bracing forelegs on her pelvis. His penis (turned back when merely extended), curving forward and upward when fully erect, probes for and finds the flap over the downward opening vagina. Having gained entrance, the bull straightens on his hind legs and copulates in a normal looking position.

OFFSPRING AND MATERNAL CARE


The tender loving care lavished on baby elephants is one of the species' more endearing traits. Just to see a very young elephant (birth weight c. 265 lb 1120 kg]) in a herd is breathtaking—how can these monsters avoid stepping on the tiny creature at their feet.7 Calves small enough to walk under mother (first year) remain in constant touch; if one strays over 20 yds away, it is retrieved. But gradually, the burden of staying close shifts to the calf developing into the leader follower ties that bind an elephant herd. A 9 year old still spends half its time within 5 yds of mother's side, 5 to 6 years after weaning. Closely related females cross suckle each other's calves; some cows keep lactating indefinitely. The bond between mother and daughter lasts up to 50 years.

PREDATORS

No land animal is safer from predators excepting humans with firearms. Lions and spotted hyenas, perfectly capable of taking baby elephants, are treated as enemies; group defense and protectiveness of a maternal herd rarely give them opportunities.

HOW THEY COMMUNICATE


All seem equally important, though eyesight is less acute than other senses.

ELEPHANT BEHAVIOR GUIDE

Expect to see and hear Usual context and meaning

Male Advertising Presence/Dominance


BULL IN MUSTH
Scent marking with temporal glands rubbing temples on trees, rocks, etc. at maximum stretch. Copious flow of sticky secretion stains cheeks. Pungent odor advertises musth condition; height of marks indexes size.
Swollen, partially extended penis dripping green secretion. Drips scent mark route of musth male.
Powerful low frequency rumbles broadcast presence of musth male to elephants miles away. Infrasound people can't hear. You might see vibrations of forehead when a bull is calling, or actually feel vibrations if very (too) close.

Aggression


Standing tall head and tail raised, ears spread, trunk hanging. Dominance display. Similar to alert posture, but head is raised higher, making sharper angle with trunk.

THREAT DISPLAYS, FROM MILD TO SEVERE
Turning toward (body or just head) and approaching while nodding with ears half spread. Common displays between cows, reinforcing herd rank order.
Head jerking and head tossing head abruptly raised, then slowly lowered. In tossing, head is first lowered, then jerked upward so that tusks describe an arc. Head shaking: head is twisted to side, then rotated side to side, making ears slap against face.
Forward trunk swish: trunk is rolled up and abruptly unfurled like a party noisemaker, accompanied by trumpeting or air blast. Usually addressed to smaller adversary, including humans. Same gesture is used to rip up and throw objects (bushes, grass, branches).
Demonstration charge rapid approach with ears spread, head high, tail out, trunk position variable, + vocal accompaniment. Signs of uncertainty and ambivalence preceding charge, especially displacement activities, are indications of a demonstration rather than a real charge but don't count on it!
Elephant stops short and moves away at an angle, looking back with head high and turned, back arched and tail raised. As in standing tall dominance display.
SPARRING AND FIGHTING
Taking measure confronting, heads raised as high as possible, tusks or trunk bases engaged. Prelude to challenge ritual, play, or serious fighting between males?. One that stands taller usually dominates, especially if its tusks are also bigger. Equals may proceed tO pushing and trunk wrestling or-if female' in heat present-to serious ramming fight.
Trunk wrestling.
VOCAL ACCOMPANIMENT
Growling, increasing to roaring; trumpeting; screaming.

Submission


Avoidance of superior: turning away, backing up, flight.
Submissive posture: flattening ears, arching back, raising tail.
Greeting ceremony. Described under Sociable Behavior.
Displacement Activities
Exaggerated feeding behavior breaking off branches,
tearing up and slapping grass against foot.
Touching temple gland.
Rubbing eye.
Swaying.
Foot swinging.
Pawing.
Throwing dust.

Sociable Behavior


GREETING CEREMONY
Lower ranking animal showing intention to insert trunk tip in mouth of approaching adult. Derived from calf's habit of putting trunk in mother's mouth.
Trunk twining, touching, embracing, caressing, rubbing. Bonding behavior between mother/calf and herd.
Trumpeting, growling, urinating, and defecating. Intense greeting between bond groups.
Contact call audible rumbling and growling that grades into inaudible infrasound. Voiced typically when a herd member has strayed; the matriarch usually answers. Growling is louder form of rumbling.
Flowing temporal glands, staining cheeks. Often seen in most or all herd members. Glands active in both sexes beginning in infancy; social function/significance unknown; possibly associated with stress.
Raising fallen herd member. Observed in males as well as in females.

Courtship


MALE BEHAVIOR
Large male accompanying female herd.
Following and chasing female,
Placing trunk to male genital opening or in her urine, then putting tip in his mouth. Using vomeronasal organ to test female reproductive status (organ function explained in glossary).
Competition between rival males, including supplanting, chasing, sparring, rarely fighting.
FEMALE BEHAVIOR
Infrasound calling. Broadcasts presence and location of cow in heat to elephants miles away.
Watchful, nervous behavior: moving quickly out of way, with head higher and eyes wider open than usual.
Leaving herd and bustling away with tail raised, head fumed to see pursuing suitor; circling and resuming to herd.
Stopping when overtaken and contacted by bull.
Mutual touching, trunk twining, caressing.
Backing into male and standing for copulation. Fully receptive.
Mating.
Excited behavior of other males: ear flapping, head-shaking, backing toward courting couple while defecating and urinating; loud calling and milling. Signs of sexual stimulation.

Mother and Offspring

MATERNAL CARE OF SMALL CALF
Frequent touching with trunk, feet.
Helping calf to its feet using one foot and trunk.
Crooking trunk around calf's rump to help it up steep places.
Lifting it over obstacles or out of a wallow.
Pushing it under her to protect it from danger or hot sun.
Bathing calf: spraying water over and scrubbing it gently with her trunk.
Drawing water from her own stomach and spraying calf. During drought, to cool the calf-not an everyday event.
Steering calf by holding its tail.
Calf following and holding mother's tail.
Calf distress call: squealing. Elicits immediate protective response from mother and other herd males.
Note babies' clumsy attempts to use trunk. Control develops gradually.

Play


Calves very playful, especially at water.
Solitary play by young calves.
Trunk wrestling, shoving, butting, bullying other species. Usually males, beginning young and continuing to subadult stage. Contests with peers establish dominance order; bulls learn to assess adversary's fighting capability.

Response to Predators


Alert posture standing with head raised, ears spread, tail raised, trunk raised or turned to catch scent.
Group defense: defensive ring around calves.
Demonstration or real charge. > Illustrated under Aggression, above.
Flight.

SOUNDS OF ALARM, ANGER, PAIN

Trumpeting, screaming, growling, roaring.
Bellowing (growling with open mouth). Response to pain or intense fear.

Reprinted from "The Safari Companion" by Richard Estes
wildlife